Chandlers Model of Integrated Managerial Enterprise

Introduction In the 18th century, most of the US companies operated as small enterprises that were directly operated by the owners. However, this trend changed after increased industrialization led to introduction of new technologies for production and transportation (Rodriguez 2009, pp. 284-298).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Chandler’s Model of Integrated Managerial Enterprise specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Additionally, the demand for goods and services increased as businesses discovered new overseas markets. As a result, large multinational companies emerged whose operations were mainly controlled by managers (Jeffs 2008, p. 89). Neoclassical economists attribute the rise and organization of large firms to the ability of entrepreneurs to respond effectively to the dictates of the invisible hand of the competitive market. By contrast, Chandler and his school of thought attribute the rise and organiz ation of large firms to the managerial revolution, which replaced the invisible hand of the market (Fruin 2009, pp. 261-271). This paper will shed light on the extent to which Chandler’s model of integrated managerial enterprise explain the organization of large companies in major economies. It will also analyze the model’s ability to explain the competitiveness of nations. Integrated Managerial Enterprise Model Managerial enterprise refers to â€Å"large industrial/ business concerns in which operating and investment decisions are made by a hierarchy of salaried managers who report to a board of directors† (Rodriguez, Eisenhardt McKenna 2002, pp. 20-26). The organizational structure of the modern business enterprise has various operating units with their own offices, managers, and systems of accountability. According to Chandler, modern businesses adopt a centralized managerial hierarchy because the decentralized market system is not effective as companies exp and (Rodriguez, Eisenhardt McKenna 2002, pp. 20-26). Large companies believe that the centralized managerial hierarchy will improve their competitiveness by facilitating economies of scale and scope, as well as, generation of new knowledge. The gains outlined in the foregoing paragraph could only be realized after technological advancements led to development of railroads and telegraphs, as well as, utilization of coal (Fruin 2009, pp. 261-271). These technologies led to increased production. Thus, management hierarchies (visible hand) had to be established to supervise and to coordinate production processes (Rodriguez, Eisenhardt McKenna 2002, pp. 20-26). Extent to Which the Model Explain the Organization of Large Companies The Managerial Hierarchies Virtually all large companies in advanced economies have adopted an organizational structure with different levels of management and business units. The functional organizational structure can be identified in nearly every company.Ad vertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More All large companies in advanced economies have departments, which are responsible for specific functions such as marketing, production, and human resource management (Ingham 2009, pp. 1-12). The heads of these departments often report to a higher level of management. For instance, they can report to the chief operations officer (COO) or the chief executive officer (CEO). Given the increase in competition, large companies that produce several products that are often unrelated have opted to adopt a multidivisional organizational structure. In this case, the company is organized into divisions that are responsible for serving specific markets (Caves 1980, pp. 64-92). Each division has several departments whose heads report to a single coordinating officer. The coordinator is responsible for appraising the performance of the division and developing long-term growth plans for the division (Fruin 2009, pp. 261-271). The head of each division reports to the CEO of the company. The multidivisional structure enables large companies to improve the brand equity of each of their products and to achieve economies of scale (Ingham 2009, pp. 1-12). Companies that have adopted the multidivisional organizational structure include Disney, AIG, and General Motors. The holding company organizational structure is also common among large multinational companies. This organizational structure is used by companies to invest in unrelated businesses in various parts of the world. For instance, the AP Moller Group has four companies that are engaged in different businesses such as shipping, mining, oil distribution, and managing port facilities. The holding company organizational structure enables large companies to diversify their revenue streams by investing in different industries (Freeman 2010, p. 134). Although the hierarchical management syst em has been adopted by all large companies, its application varies from region to region. The managerial form of a business enterprise envisioned by Chandler has not emerged in many Asian economies such as Japan, India, New Zealand, and China.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Chandler’s Model of Integrated Managerial Enterprise specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In China, most large companies are still owned and controlled by the founding families (Mesure 2007, pp. 219-220). Most Chinese large companies are controlled by the head of the founding family who uses his networks and relations to manage the business. Thus, the governance structure of Chinese firms, especially, at the top is unstructured. In some cases, the activities of large companies are supervised by loose and flexible groups who advise the owner (Mesure 2007, pp. 219-220). This organizational system suggests that large Chinese companies are st ill using the traditional structure. Personal Capitalism The success of Chinese companies suggests that Chandler’s analysis of British firms is biased. He argues that British companies were reluctant to establish effective management systems to undertake functions such as mass production and mass marketing (Fruin 2009, pp. 261-271). Consequently, British companies lost their competitiveness to the German and the US companies that had clear separation of management and ownership. However, the failure of British companies in the 20th century was not necessarily because of personal capitalism. The companies might have failed due to technological challenges and market dynamics rather than the inability of their owners to invest in managerial capabilities (Fridenson 2004, pp. 564-569). Chandler did to consider the role of national characteristics in determining the success of businesses. For instance, the large size of the US economy and availability of effective financial systems led to the emergence of large firms. By contrast, the small size of the British economy inhibited the growth of its companies. In Japan, multinationals such as Toyota are still owned and managed by members of the founding families. Similarly, major US and UK companies such as Microsoft, Virgin Atlantic, and Apple have always been managed by members of the founding families who still own a substantial amount of equity. Chandler’s claim that the managerial business enterprise arises primarily to coordinate production and distribution does not fully explain the organization of modern large companies. In most countries, public companies are forced by regulators of capital markets to separate ownership and management before listing their equities (Hill Jones 2012, p. 192). Thus, compliance with regulation is sometimes the main factor that forces business owners to hire an independent management.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Structure and Strategy According to Chandler, companies accumulate simple strategies that increase the complexity of their structures. For instance, as a company’s strategy changes from volume expansion to geographic dispersion, its structure evolves from an administrative office to a departmental headquarters. Ultimately, the strategy shift to vertical integration and diversification. As a result, the company’s structure changes from divisional central office to multidivisional general office (Fruin 2009, pp. 261-271). Generally, the organizational structure of large companies is determined by the strategies that they adopt (Ansoff 2007, p. 235). For instance, vertical integration was an important element of large companies in the US before the 1980s. Large manufacturers such as Ford Motor Company controlled their supply chains by investing in the companies that produced their inputs and distributed their products (Kleinand Lien 2009, pp. 289-312). Generally, vertica l integration improves the competitiveness of large companies by reducing the bargaining power of their suppliers, as well as, ensuring steady supply of high quality inputs (Ansoff 2007, p. 236). However, advancements in transportation and communication technologies in the 20th century coupled with intense competition have reduced the attractiveness of vertical integration. The creation of virtual offices and improvements in shipping technologies has led to a shift from vertical integration to modularity, outsourcing, and networking (Fruin 2009, pp. 261-271). Coordination of the supply chain has shifted to independent firms such as shipping companies and contract manufacturers who require little supervision. Contrary to Chandler’s view, modern large companies have been able to achieve differentiation without adopting a multidivisional organizational structure. The importance of this strategy is that it enables large companies to reduce their operating costs by eliminating mul tiple levels of management (Helper Sako 2010, pp.399-429). This increases the profits of large companies that operate in markets where profit margins are constantly shrinking due to high competition (Helper Sako 2010, pp.399-429). Internal Management and Market Factors Chandler argues that modern businesses â€Å"allocate their resources by managing rather than using the market† (Rodriguez 2009, pp. 284-298). Specifically, the managers at various levels in the organizational structure have taken over all the allocative functions of the invisible hand of the market. According to Chandler, managing involves employing managers to coordinate various supply chain functions such as producing inputs (Rodriguez 2009, pp. 284-298). By contrast, using the market involves depending on external and independent entities to supply key inputs (Rodriguez 2009, pp. 284-298). This distinction does not explain the organization of large companies. Undoubtedly, there is no large company that su persedes the market by adopting a managerial hierarchy to coordinate its allocative functions. For instance, the large companies that produce their inputs (managing) must use the labor market to hire the best talent to supervise the production (using the market). Contrary to Chandler’s view, managers must rely on the market to allocate the resources of the company. In particular, managers’ decisions concerning resource allocation must be determined by market needs for the company to succeed. In a competitive market, it is the customers who decide the type of goods to be produced, where they are sold, and the quality standards to be maintained (Mathews 2004, p. 217). Large companies adopt managerial hierarchies to understand and to implement these decisions rather than to make them. Thus, managing and using the market are inseparable elements of large companies. Chandler also assumes that the governance structure of modern companies, especially, public companies gives a uthority to managers to make all key decisions on behalf of the owners of the company. This perspective ignores the role of the boards of directors and shareholders in controlling their companies. Undoubtedly, the capital market rewards good management and punishes poor management (Freeman 2010, p. 216). Specifically, companies whose managers report poor financial performance can hardly attract external capital and vice versa. In this regard, the board of directors and shareholders control large companies by setting financial goals, which the CEOs and managers must achieve in order to attract their capital. The Extent to which the Model Explains the Competitiveness of Nations Transport and Communication Technologies Countries with advanced transport and communication technologies find it easy to attract foreign direct investments. Empirical studies have shown that rapid growth of large businesses in Europe, Asia, and the US is partly attributed to the availability of adequate and ef ficient transport and communication infrastructure (Freeman 2010, p. 221). By contrast, African countries are less attractive to multinational companies due to the absence of transport infrastructure such as railroads. Transport infrastructure is important because it helps in reducing operating costs and enables companies to access external markets. Research and Development According to Chandler, managerial hierarchies enable companies to generate the knowledge that they need to succeed in various markets (Kleinand Lien 2009, pp. 289-312). Through vertical integration, large companies establish their own research and development centers to create new knowledge (Kleinand Lien 2009, pp. 289-312). The knowledge and discoveries made by the large companies are often available to the entire country through patent and copyright agreements. For instance, the research done by GE Aviation has helped the US military to acquire the equipment that they need to maintain security. As a result, t he US is one of the most attractive countries to multinational companies due to its high national security standards. Governance Structure of Publicly Traded Companies The concept of separating management and ownership in publicly traded companies borrows heavily from Chandler’s model of integrated managerial enterprise (Fridenson 2004, pp. 564-569). Countries that are able to attract foreign financial capital have clear rules on corporate governance. In particular, public companies are required to employ an independent management to oversee their activities (Fridenson 2004, pp. 564-569). This enhances transparency in financial reporting and facilitates the use of incentives to encourage high performance among managers. This attracts foreign companies to invest in local companies by purchasing equities through the equity securities markets. Limitations of the Model Chandler’s model overemphasizes the importance of technology in determining the success of modern firms a nd nations. The model ignores the importance of the labor market in determining the attractiveness of nations (Ansoff 2007, p. 258). For instance, India and China have mainly succeeded due to their low labor cost advantage. Majority of the US and European manufacturers have relocated to China and India to take advantage of low labor costs. Thus, China and India have developed rapidly at the expense of the US and Europe where labor costs are very high. Chandler’s model also ignores the importance of national cultures and values in determining the success of companies and attractiveness of nations. In the US business culture, companies require specific skills, promote employees based on merit, and reward employees based on current performance (Jeffs 2008, 278). In Japan, companies require general skills, provide permanent jobs, and some times consider seniority when promoting or rewarding employees. In China, the Confucian culture enhances the success of businesses through hard work, frugality, and discipline among employees. Thus, multinational companies will always invest in nations whose business cultures present little challenges to success. Chandler’s model fails to account for government intervention in enhancing the success of businesses (Helper Sako 2010, pp.399-429). For instance, transport and communication technologies, which are at the heart of Chandler’s model, are often developed by the government. Thus, government policy concerning transport and communication infrastructure should be considered when analyzing the success of businesses and long-term attractiveness of nations. For instance, Japanese companies succeeded in the 19th and the 20th centuries due to the government’s ability to align its policies to the needs of the business community (Jeffs 2008, 287). Conclusion The central argument of Chandler’s model is that as companies become large, they adopt managerial hierarchies that supervise their operations. Generally, nearly all large companies in major economies have managerial hierarchies because they are too large to be controlled by an individual. However, Chandler’s claim that modern companies will ultimately be controlled by people with little or no relationship with the owners is not applicable in most developed countries. Several multinational companies are still managed by at least one member of the founder’s family. Chandler’s model explains the competitiveness of nations in terms of the role of transport and communication infrastructure in opening up external markets. However, it ignores the importance of national labor markets, cultures, and government policy in enhancing the attractiveness of nations. References Ansoff, H 2007, Strategic Management, Sage, London. Caves, R 1980, Industrial Organization, Corporate Strategy, and Structure, Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 18 no. 1, pp. 64-92. Freeman, R 2010, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Appro ach, McGraw-Hill, New York. Fridenson, P 2004, Business Failure and the Agenda of Business History, Enterprise and Society, vol. 15 no. 4, pp. 564-569. Fruin, W 2009, Globalization and Alfred Chandler’s Modern American Firm, Journal of Management History, vol. 15 no. 3, pp. 261-271. Helper, S Sako, M 2010, Management Innovation in Supply Chain: Appreciating Chandler in the Twenty-first Century, Industrial and Corporate Change, vol. 19 no. 2, pp. 399-429. Hill, C Jones, G 2012, Strategic Management: An Integrated Approach, Sage, London. Ingham, H 2009, Organizational Structure and Firm Performance: An International Perspective, Journal of Economic Studies, vol. 19 no. 5, pp. 1-12. Jeffs, C 2008, Strategic Management, John Wiley and Sons, New York. Kleinand, G Lien, B 2009, Diversification, Industry Structure, and Firm Strategy: An Organizational Economics Perspective, Advances in Strategic Management, vol. 26 no. 1, pp. 289-312. Mathews, D 2004, The Visible Hand? The Econom ics of Alfred Chandler, Coastal Georgia Community Collage Press, Atlanta. Mesure, H 2007, Multinational Corporations and the New Global History, Society and Business Review, vol. 2 no. 2, pp. 219-220. Rodriguez, R 2009, From a Family-owned to a Family-controlled Business: Applying Chandler’s Insights to Explain Family Business Transitional Stages, Journal of Management History, vol. 15 no. 3, pp. 284-298. Rodriguez, N, Eisenhardt, M McKenna, C 2002, Strategy and Structure Redux: review of Alfred Chandler’s Work, Business Strategy Review, vol. 13 no. 3, pp. 20-26. This essay on Chandler’s Model of Integrated Managerial Enterprise was written and submitted by user Greyson R. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Courteous Conjunction That

The Courteous Conjunction That The Courteous Conjunction That The Courteous Conjunction That By Mark Nichol That is an innocuous little word, but it is often a linchpin of comprehension, making the difference between understanding and confusion. Take, for instance, its insertion or omission as a conjunction following verbs such as believe, ensure, and indicate. In the sentence â€Å"The seizure of the port will ensure command of the sea and free lines of communication,† a conjunction after ensure would make no sense; the sentence clearly states that an action will guarantee two results. However, a rewriting of the sentence changes the game. Here, it is correct to insert that: â€Å"The seizure of the port will ensure that we maintain command of the sea and free lines of communication.† (It’s not required, but it is recommended for a more smoothly flowing sentence.) Sometimes, though, the omission of the optional that is not so optional; withholding it can hinder comprehension. For example, in the sentence â€Å"I hope to ensure that his arrival does not affect our plans,† withholding that after ensure might deceive the reader into thinking that the sentence consists of the simple statement â€Å"I hope to ensure his arrival,† but he or she must then must shift gears to absorb an extended phrase that expresses a purpose. In this case, it’s almost an obligation to the writer to insert that after ensure: The reader’s train of thought is interrupted when he or she continues past the putative predicate. Insertion of that after ensure will guarantee that the reader is not derailed. Likewise, while reading the sentence â€Å"She glared at him, unable to believe what she had heard was coming from a friend she had trusted,† the reader might believe that the sentence consists only of the statement â€Å"She glared at him, unable to believe what she had heard.† To clarify that additional information is coming, it’s best to include that after believe: â€Å"She glared at him, unable to believe that what she had heard was coming from a friend she had trusted.† This assistance isn’t always essential; the sentence â€Å"I believe intervention is the wiser course† would not be initially misinterpreted as a sentence that might end at intervention. However, as a courtesy to your readers, consider always including the optional conjunction. What if you started to read a sentence beginning with â€Å"He pointed his chin to indicate the chair to his left†? You might expect that clause to be self-contained. But if the statement continues â€Å"had been left vacant for her,† you’d probably wish that indicate had been followed by that to signal that more is to come. Such details distinguish competent writing from commendable writing. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:"Based in" and "based out of"Deck the HallsPreposition Review #1: Chance of vs. Chance for

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Case study on Expert Systems - Essay Example â€Å"An expert system is an information system that holds and stores the expertise of human experts and then reproduces human reasoning and decision making† (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005, p. 729). According to (Laudon & Laudon, 1999, p. 446), an expert system can be defined as knowledge exhaustive computer program that captures the skills or expertise of human in limited fields of knowledge. An expert system can help decision making by creating related questions and describing the causes for taking definite action (Laudon & Laudon, 1999). This first example encompasses the implementation of expert system in the manufacturing industry. In this regard Lee (2009) presented a detailed overview of a new type of system development and implimentataion at US defense department. The new technology based expert system will be helpful in development of the new generation of weapons systems. This expert system is aimed to effectively manufacture the intended products through giving the advanced materials and current manufacturing techniques. This system is acknowledged as the Intelligent Processing of Materials (IPM) program (Lee, 2009). The implementation of the IPM is aimed to diminish the manufacturing expenditure by using expert systems as well as intelligent control over the major development areas. The main aim of this system is to be functional and efficient in greater stresses, higher temperatures, and harsher environments, for the reason that new material involves all these factors in the overall production and developm ent. According to development teams, IPM program will minimize the overall development time and make intelligent decision. This expert system will make use of analysis as well as synthesis tools to shape models of the material processes. During all these processes the expert system will also control the in-situ sensors to monitor real states of processes. This expert system will be a compensation of the

No topic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 17

No topic - Assignment Example Hence, it is advisable that the Christians with the heart of helping the needy should not spoon feed them, but provide them with guidelines on how they can solve their problems and come out of their situations. Bob Lupton, Bart Fikkert, and Melissa Dodson realized that the people being helped had the capacity and capability of doing the things that they were a help. For instance, they observed that persons whose streets were littered and charity works were geared towards cleaning their streets had the capacity including physical fitness to undertake these tasks by themselves. Additionally, they realized that the people who were being helped by charities became lazy to perform tasks that could help them obtain what they were provided with yet they were in positions to do the same. Therefore, these charity works only increased their dependency on handouts from the charity organization or people. These circumstances are different from other circumstances that these authors highly criticized. Obviously, the natural disasters are usually emergencies that people need to be helped out of or help to recover to their normal ways of life. In these cases, Bob Lupton, Steve Corbett, and Brian Fikkert may not criticize persons, organizations, or religions that provide charity to these people. Notably, after a well-coordinated response by the government among other relevant agencies to these emergencies, the affected persons from natural disasters are expected to resume their normal life. Therefore, they are not expected to depend on the charity for the rest of their lives; hence, Bob Lupton, Steve Corbett, and Brian Fikkert may support individuals to provide such groups with charitable services and goods. Relief is an urgent, but temporary aid provided to reduce suffering following a man-made or natural disaster. On the other hand, rehabilitation are is reconstruction steps that are often undertaken immediately after

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Advanced Seminar Final Take Home Exam - Assignment Example The fourth is education in order to enhance growth of knowledge and the management of activities that direct, organize or control activities that psychologists offer to the public. Fifth is ability to adhere to ethics of good practice and lastly the skills to develop appropriate attitudes towards the understanding of concepts such as individual differences, cultural diversity and professional development (Falender & Shafranske, 2008). MASTERY stands for Mastering knowledge, Assessing skills and competence, Setting minimal competency standards, Training to competency, Evaluating understanding of relevant legal and ethical principles, Reviewing skill level and Yielding to continuing education (Falender & Shafranske, 2008). I will ensure that the trainees have the knowledge required of them to become competent psychologists by providing training opportunities for them in order to build their knowledge and skills. After the training I will use various methods to assess whether they have acquired the right knowledge and skills necessary for them to perform their duties. In order for them learn faster and acquire these skills it is important to set minimal standards for them so that they feel motivated to learn. In the supervision I will continue to offer more avenues for training so that they build on their competencies so that they feel competent about their duties. I will also ensure that they do understand ethical concerns in handling patients by exposing them to various legal and ethical problems. I will also evaluate them to see whether they have learnt anything if not I will give them a chance to build their knowledge through continued education. Intentional self-disclosure is the deliberate verbal or nob verbal disclosure of personal information. It refers to both verbal and other deliberate actions that may include placing a given family photo in the office. There are two types:

Conflicts In The Nile Basin History Essay

Conflicts In The Nile Basin History Essay The Nile is the longest river in the world, it is 6860 km long, it is supplied by two great river systems, the 1st one is the White Nile (in the Lake Plateau) which is surrounded by Kenya, Uganda, Congo, Rwanda, Tanzania, an Burundi; and the other one is the Blue Nile (in Eritrea and the Ethiopian highlands); while in the north there are Egypt and Sudan that receive their water from the previously mentioned sources. The Nile River had a great role in making history on its banks, a lot of civilizations and nations were made on them; The Nile Basin consists of 10 nations which are: Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi with a total population of three hundred millions and it is expected to be doubled in the next twenty five years, the basin itself is 3,000,000 Km square that covers about 10% of the African continent area; There is no doubt that with the increasing of population, the water requirement is also increased in addition to the water that is needed for agriculture and energy production. It is may also be important to know that all the basin nations are really poor maybe the poorest in the world (except for Kenya and Egypt) and that poverty increases rates of disease and starvation. According to the terms of the agreement that was made in 1929 between Britain (the colonial power of Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya, Egypt and Sudan have the absolute right to use 100% of the Niles water, while in 1959 there was another one between Sudan and Egypt. Since 1992 a lot of efforts were exerted to push the basin nations towards development and cooperation, and finally in 1999 there was the establishment of the NBI (Nile Basin Initiative), it was developed by the World Bank, Canadian International Development Agency and the United Nations Development Programme, it was established to decrease the tension between those nations and to help them to develop and gain regional stability by controlling and planning the water resources all together. Any management of any river basin in the world is complex, while the Nile Basin may be considered to be the most complex one because of its history of poverty, sacrifices, wars and insecurity, and on the other hand, the rapid and non-stoppable population growth on its banks that surely increases water and energy requirements, and that is why the NBI must have a great role in managing all those challenges and ensure the cooperation between all the nations. Recently the conflicts became even more aggressive between the Nile basin nations when 4 Nile nations which are Tanzania, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Uganda have together signed an agreement that allows them to use more amounts of Nile waters in development projects and irrigation, meanwhile Egypt and Sudan didnt agree and they convinced Burundi, Eritrea, Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya of not signing on that agreement. Discussion: The Challenge: The Nile Basin consists of 10 nations which are: Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi with a total population of three hundred millions and it is expected to be doubled in the next twenty five years, the basin itself is 3,000,000 Km square that covers about 10% of the African continent area; There is no doubt that with the increasing of population, the water requirement is also increased in addition to the water that is needed for agriculture and energy production. The River Nile is 6672 km long and it is the second longest river in the whole world, and it is supplied by 2 main sources, the first one comes from Lake Victoria and forms the White Nile that passes through Uganda and ends in Sudan while the second source is in the Ethiopian highlands and forms the Blue Nile that meets the White Nile at Khartoum then it continues northward to pass through Egypt and ends into the Mediterranean Sea. The River Nile for Egypt is everything; People in Egypt has always been connected to the Nile from the day of their birth till the moment of their death; Historically, in the fifth century B.C. Herodotus described Egypt as the gift of the Nile, and after Nasser built the dam at Aswan, the connection was reinforced more and more, Egypt depends mainly on the River Nile as a water supply and with the rapid increase in population, the water demands become more. In 1929 an agreement was held between Britain and Egypt and another one in1959 that was held between Egypt and Sudan, both have given the downstream nations their natural right of the Niles waters, construction of dams was approved and the water was divided as follows: Egypt has forty eight billions cubic meters, Sudan has four billions, and thirty two million will end into the Mediterranean Sea; now that was acceptable then because the rest of the upstream countries were not developed, and their population was relatively low, today those countries need to develop and they need to develop new projects and construct dams and that would be a high threat to the downstream nations as the downstream nations want to renegotiate about the old treaty, on the other hand, Egypt has refused to renegotiate and considers its share of water a natural right and became prepared for any military action as Egypt is known as the most powerful military power in Africa. Egypt receives 97.5% of the Niles water and Sudan receives 77%, however, it is very important to make clear that the water distribution between the Nile Nations is fair because of the following: The 7 upstream nations are located in humid areas they have rainfall average range from 1250 to 1500mm annually, on the other hand it is 500mm in Sudan and Eritrea while it is not more than 15mm in Egypt annually. Egypts climate is hyper arid with high temperature that will cause rapid evaporation and will definitely cause marked losses of water resources in Egypt. The upstream nations receive about 1500 billion cubic meters every year while on the other hand Egypt receives only 85 cubic billion meters every year and that equals 5-7% of the total water resources. The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) In 1999 the Nile Basin Initiative was established and developed by the World Bank, CIDA, and the UNDP, it was established in order to decrease the conflicts and the tensions between the Nile basin nations and help them to cooperate and develop the water resources of the Nile. It was supported by a lot of donors including Denmark, Canada, Germany, Japan, Finland, Italy, Norway, the UK, the Netherlands, the US, Swede, the African Development Bank, GEF, FAO, the World Bank and UNDP. The NBI has stated that they can make successful 100% development that will definitely lead to more food and energy production, development of industry, development of transportation, and other regional activities development. The projects of the NBI include fishing projects, management of water, management of the floods, reduction of the pollution, and finally controlling the waterborne diseases. Management of water resources is considered to be a very complex process in any river basin, and if you realized that the Nile basin has always been characterized by poverty, water scarcity, huge population, and long history of wars and insecurity then you will understand how complex and difficult it can be. NBI knew that cooperative development is the only way for the greatest results and maximum benefits to all of the Niles basin nations, the NBI provides the shared vision and a base for cooperative development, and its primary objectives are: Developing the water resources of the Nile Basin in an equitable way in order to ensure: Security Prosperity Peace Ensure the optimal use of the Nile Basin water resources Ensure joint action and cooperation between all the Nile Basin nations Eliminate poverty and enhance economic renaissance Transforming the plan into action and the dream to a fact Conflict in the Nile Basin In Entebbe, Uganda, 14-2-2010, 4 upriver nations which are Ethiopia, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Uganda have started and signed an agreement that allows them to have more management of the Nile waters to use them in development projects and irrigation. That agreement was made while the negotiations with the downstream nations were standstill; on the other hand the reaction of the downstream nations was not sending any delegations but they have used diplomacy in convincing Burundi, Kenya, Eritrea, and Congo not to sign on that agreement. The 7 upstream nations now consider the old treaties unfair and demand more water to be used for irrigation and development projects. Egypt cleared that cooperation between the Nile Basin nations is the only way to achieve maximum benefits and that the upstream nations can make better use of the water resources they already have (rainfall), however, the upstream nations are threatening that they would sign another agreement that will exclude Sudan and Egypt and distribute the Nile waters in a new way; that agreement is considered to be a death sentence to all the Egyptians, and that was what made Egypt announce that it will take whichever action may be found necessary to secure its share in the River Nile. Another important fact to be mentioned is that Israel is participating in building dams in Uganda on the Nile waters and that increases the worries and the tension of the Egyptians. It is matter of time for Sudan and Egypt to specify their reaction against that new agreement, and they have to make a serious act to protect their rights of the Niles water; every country has to pay everything to protect its national security. Solutions and recommendations: Basin nations are depending on each other, they are all linked to the River Nile, if Nile nations have cooperated and managed Nile waters all together, synergy will be created between them and conflicts between them will be resolved, and regional stability and development will be achieved; That could only happen if all the Nile nations have reached a legal agreement between all of them based on trust, shared interest, and common bond. Collaborative management will help in reaching peace between all the Nile nations, because if we managed to share water, the struggle for life will disappear, and battles between tribes, clans, families, neighbors and nations will also disappear. The Basin Nations must know that natural resources (water) can bring peace and cooperation instead of fighting each other, they can use that water to build new culture and new developments. Another useful solution is to take into consideration the opinions of the public including farmers, women, different organizations, and fishers. Finally there must be management schemes that determine the rightful share of water for each country according to its needs and in order to help all the Nile nations to use the Niles water today and in the future with easy accessibility and based on the shared interests and the broad participation. Conclusion:

Marketing Strategy and ECommerce :: GCSE Business Marketing BTEC Coursework

Marketing Strategy and ECommerce Introduction With the rapidly advancing technologies that are occurring in modern business, organisations are required to be ready, and able to adapt within their ever-changing environment. It is true across all diverse industries that in order to stay competitive, organisations must be able to utilise the various tools that technology has to offer. Technological factors have been of growing importance, particularly in recent years. A major factor involved in these technology issues is the use of the Internet as a major issue to modern organisations. The Internet has been rapidly growing since it's inception and is now commonly used in all sectors of societies, in all corners of the globe. The Internet has quickly become one of the most valuable assets in modern technology, and as such, is developing as an integral part of modern commerce. As with past technologies, the Internet will have future technological advances develop from its own growth. The task the organisations of in the new century? Realise future opportunities and threats, and base a strategy accordingly. "Is it clichà © to say that 'the Internet changes everything': the challenge now is to say what, how and how quickly". (When Companies Connect, 1999, p.19) The Internet has lead to the birth and evolution of electronic commerce or E-commerce. E-commerce has now become a key component of many organisations in the daily running of their business. Simply defined, "electronic commerce is a system of online shopping and information retrieval accessed through networks of personal computers". (Reedy, J. Schullo, S. Zimmerman, K. 2000, pg. 29) E-commerce challenges traditional organisational practices, and opens ups a vast array of issues that the organisations must address. By focusing on the varying levels of an organisation, it soon become apparent the effects that E-commerce can have. An understanding of the implication E-commerce has on such organisational divisions can help businesses gain understanding hence plan for it's inevitable continuing evolution. In terms of marketing, the modern organisation must be critically aware of the development of E-commerce, and the implications that it entails. "Marketers develop their own recipe of promotional tactics to fit the product lines or industries in which they compete. Now electronic communications tools are and will continue to be an important ingredient in the promotional mix" (Reedy, J. Schullo, S. Zimmerman, K. 2000, pg. 29) In assessing the implications of E-commerce in terms of marketing, it is important to understand its impact in respect to